Aim and tasks. To identify patterns and stages of formation of the Union State as a fundamentally new integration association in the Eurasian space.

   Methods. System analysis of integration processes and synergistic effect of interaction and cooperation in the economic and socio-political spheres.

   Results. The main aspects of life of the Belarusian state and society in the post-Soviet period: development of the political system, economic reforms, policy in the sphere of culture, language, national relations and historical memory, foreign policy. The position is substantiated that, despite many positive changes over a quarter of a century, the need to improve the political form of the Union State and the legal model of Russian-Belarusian cooperation is not removed from the agenda. Special relations between the leadership of the countries and their broadest popular support ensure the sustainability of integration, but the level of operational management at the level of departments and territories needs to be improved.

   Conclusions. Russia and Belarus in their integration interaction have created a new type of supranational state in the Eurasian space with its inherent confederative and federal features.

   This work is devoted to the analysis of the results of 25 years of the formation of the Union State.

   Aim and tasks. To define the geopolitical dimension of the Union State as an integration project of Russia and the Republic of Belarus. To study the main results of the Union State’s activities over 25 years of its formation. To analyze the main directions of development of the single geopolitical space of the Union State. To assess the geopolitical determinants of the integration association of Russia and the Republic of Belarus.

   Methods. Research of publications and other materials on the topic under study based on the geopolitical paradigm, methods of analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction, qualitative content analysis.

   Results. The study revealed the nature of the geopolitical subjectivity of the Union State in the new geopolitical configuration in Europe.

   Conclusions. The Union State is acquiring the image of a full-fledged constructor of the post-Soviet geopolitical space after its erosion. It has become an indicator of the understanding by Russian and Belarusian society of the level of their geopolitical self-identification and awareness of the geopolitical future of their countries in the new geopolitical and geoeconomic architecture of the modern world.

   Aim and tasks. To conduct an in-depth study of the prospects and challenges faced by enterprises in the energy sector of Kazakhstan within the framework of integration into the Eurasian Economic Union, and to identify directions for optimizing their operations. It is proposed to examine the tools for realizing economic interests, assess the influencing factors, audit the effectiveness of existing strategies, and develop practical recommendations for adapting and improving the activities of enterprises in order to maximize the benefits of integration and mitigate the associated risks.

   Methods. The research is based on a multidisciplinary approach that combines systems, economic, and comparative analysis, statistical methods, and expert assessments. To ensure the reliability and relevance of the results, official statistical data, materials from the Eurasian Economic Commission, scientific publications, and analytical reports will be used.

   Results. The research will identify and systematize the economic interests of energy sector enterprises in Kazakhstan within the EAEU framework, analyze the mechanisms for realizing these interests, assess the influencing factors and the effectiveness of current strategies, and propose recommendations for optimizing activities to maximize the benefits and minimize the risks
of integration.

   Conclusions. Kazakhstan’s integration into the EAEU opens new opportunities for the development of the country’s energy sector, but requires a comprehensive approach, including increased competitiveness, infrastructure modernization, innovation adoption, and government support, to successfully realize economic interests in the face of increased competition and new regulatory norms.

   Aim and tasks. To consider the institutions of the self-employed in Kazakhstan and Russia, to identify the difficulties of their functioning. To study the essence of the concepts of “self-employment” and “self-employed” through the prism of the legislation of Kazakhstan and Russia; to consider the evolution of the development of self-employed institutions in Kazakhstan and Russia; to analyze the features of the functioning of self-employment institutions in Kazakhstan and Russia and to determine the difficulties of their functioning.

   Methods. To study the institutions of self-employment and their development in Kazakhstan and Russia, the historical and legal method was used; to identify the general and specific in the functioning of self-employment institutions in Kazakhstan and Russia, a comparative analysis was used.

   Results. The stages of development of self-employment institutions in Kazakhstan and Russia are considered. The characteristics of self-employment institutions in Kazakhstan and Russia are revealed. The features of tax regulation of the self-employed are analyzed. The difficulties of functioning of self-employment institutions in Kazakhstan and Russia are shown.

   Conclusions. The imperfection of approaches to regulating the activities of the self-employed in Kazakhstan and Russia is shown. Among the difficulties identified are: weak social protection of the self-employed, the preservation of informal self-employment, precarization of the labor of the self-employed, a low level of harmonization of tax legislation in relation to the self-employed, weak protection of the social rights of labor migrants.

   Aim and tasks. Substantiation of proposals for improving the organizational forms of development of the tourism industry of the PRC based on the analysis of its current state and the implementation of the practical experience of the Russian Federation. To consider the stages of tourism development in China and the evolution of the tourism management structure; to analyze the localization of attractions in the China (in the context of category 5A tourist sites and UNESCO heritage sites); to perform a cluster analysis of category 5A tourist sites using a geographic information system (GIS); to substantiate proposals for improving the organizational forms of development of the tourism industry of the China.

   Methods. The basis and methods of the study: a systems approach, logical analysis and synthesis, cluster analysis, geoinformation analysis, content analysis of open sources.

   Results. The chronology of tourism development in China has been studied. The analysis of the localization of category 5A tourism sites and UNESCO cultural heritage sites has been performed. A cluster analysis of top-category tourist sites has been conducted using GIS. Proposals for improving the organization of tourism in China based on a spatial approach and the creation of a tourist macro-territory have been substantiated.

   Conclusions. When developing strategic documents for the development of the tourism industry of the PRC, it is advisable to implement the Russian experience of forming macro-territories using the master plan tool, and the China Development Bank can become the methodological center of this process. For the implementation of the pilot project to create the first tourist macro-territory, the territory of the “Eastern Cluster” is recommended, in which 25% of category 5A tourist sites and 25 % of sites included in the list of UNESCO World Cultural and Natural Heritage Sites are localized. A promising vector of research is the consideration of the tourism sector of the China in the context of the implementation of the global project «One Belt — One Road» taking into account the interests of the BRICS integration association.

   Aim and tasks. To determine the influence of non-Estonian-speaking population on the development of network structures in the highly innovative services sector of Estonia. To achieve the objective of the study, the following objectives were set: analysis of literary sources on the topic of the study; determine the role of the non-Estonian-speaking population in the sector of highly innovative services of Estonia; conduct a correlation and regression analysis of indicators characterizing the influence of the non-Estonian-speaking population of Estonia on network structures in the sector of highly innovative services.

   Methods. To determine network structures, an indicator from the collection “Science. Technology.Innovation” of the Estonian statistical service was used, which characterizes the number of enterprises that had partners in the field of innovation activities. Data on cooperation between Estonian organizations is published for a two-year period. In the correlation and regression analysis, the data referred to the last year in the period. As a characteristic of the non-Estonian-speaking population, indicators of the population employed in the economy were used.

   Results. The role of the non-Estonian-speaking population in the Estonian economy, including in the Estonian highly innovative services sector, was analyzed. During the period under review, a third of the employed population of Estonia with higher education are non-Estonian-speaking. A quarter of all employed specialists in the top and middle management levels are also non-Estonian-speaking. In the sectors “Information and Communication” and “Professional, Scientific and Technical Activities”, the non-Estonian-speaking population makes up 1/5 of all employed. Based on the results of the regression analysis, a statistically significant and reliable regression model was identified, indicating that the development of network structures in the information and computer services sector is influenced by Russian-speaking specialists at the “Manager” level.

   Conclusions. Despite the aggressive Estonianisation policy pursued by the Estonian leadership, the non-Estonian speaking population, especially the Russian speaking population, plays an important role in key sectors of the Estonian economy. The issue of linguistic security and diversity is an important element of the nation’s self-identification, so ill-considered decisions can lead to increased social tension. At the same time, limiting the rights of a third of the population can not only aggravate social tension in society, but also have a negative impact on the economic development of the entire country.

   Aim and tasks. The purpose of the study is to analyse the current state and prospects of development of the global and Russian markets of gas condensate and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG).

   The main objectives of the study include assessing the economic importance of these products, analysing legal regulation, as well as identifying key consumption trends and the impact of sanctions restrictions.

   Methods. The research methodology is based on the analysis of statistical data on the production, processing, export and consumption of gas condensate and LPG, methods of analysing legal and economic barriers affecting the market are used, and retrospective analysis of the global and Russian markets is applied to identify ke y trends. Results. The analysis reveals the main drivers of changes in the supply and consumption structure of gas condensate and LPG. Key pricing factors affecting the competitiveness of Russian suppliers were identified, sanctions and legal restrictions that have
a significant impact on export opportunities were considered.

   Conclusions. The study confirmed the need to diversify export markets, develop processing facilities and improve logistics infrastructure to enhance the competitiveness of Russian producers in the global market. The results may be useful for oil and gas companies and government regulators.

   Aim and tasks. The objective of the study is to substantiate the concept and structure of public law and order in the context of Eurasian economic integration.

   The objectives of the study are: review and analysis of the concepts of public law and order in the contractual and legal framework of the Eurasian Economic Union; identification of approaches to understanding public law and order; determination of its structure in the context of integration.

   Methods. The following methods were used: institutional analysis, comparative analysis, system analysis — to substantiate the concept of public law and order from the point of view of integration. The method of formal logical analysis was also used — when clarifying the concept of public law and order in various acts of the integration level.

   Results. Firstly, the mutual influence of the existing theory of public law and order on management processes in the context of Eurasian economic integration is highlighted. Secondly, amendments to the Constitution of the Russian Federation also contributed to the constitutionaliza tion of public law and order in Russia. Thirdly, within the framework of the integration agenda, there are processes of expansion of the traditional approach to international private law, based on the “public order clause” as a basis for refusing to comply with the requirements of international treaties and other acts, due to the differentiation of its levels and elements, the allocation of the public legal order of the integration member state and the integration entity itself.

   Conclusions. The concept of public legal order in the context of the development of integration processes is acquiring a qualitatively new meaning. In addition to the fact that approaches to its understanding are significantly expanding, in relation to the Eurasian Economic Union it is possible to distinguish at least two levels of such understanding: the public legal order of the EAEU member states and the Eurasian public legal order. At the same time, the formation of the new content of the concept of public legal order in the context of Eurasian integration is influenced not only by the contractual and legal framework of the EAEU, but also by the practice of the EAEU Court.

   Aim and tasks. To develop an approach, the use of which will allow for the systematic harmonization and unification of the legislation of the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation within the Union State in the field of security, taking into account the specifics of national legal systems. To analyze the experience of harmonization and unification of legislation in the USSR and the European Union. To conduct a comparative legal analysis of legislative acts of Belarus and Russia regulating relations in the field of security. To formulate proposals for the formation of a homogeneous legal system of the Union State in the field of security.

   Methods. In the course of the study, comparative legal, deductive and systemic methods were used, as well as methods of analysis, comparison and generalization.

   Results. The study showed that for the harmonization and unification of the legislation of Belarus and Russia within the Union State in the field of security, the most appropriate is to use the experience of the USSR in adopting and implementing the Fundamentals of Legislation in various industries.

   Conclusions. In the modern period, the use of the proposed approach will ensure consistent and systemic legal regulation in the sp here of ensuring security by adopting the Fundamentals of Legislation of the Union State on Ensuring National Security and, subsequently, the Fundamentals of Legislation of the Union State in Individual Spheres and in Individual Areas. Based on these Fundamentals, relevant national laws can be adopted.

   Progress towards deliberative democracy in the post-Soviet reality requires legal conditions for countering violent extremism through sustainable development of journalistic unions.

   Aim and tasks. The development of the Eurasian media space through the involvement of post-Soviet countries in equal political dialogue presupposes the protection of the interests of state media and independent journalistic unions. Digital democracy needs effective legal institutions for free and competent journalism. Providing conditions for legal interaction between States and journalistic unions in the Eurasian information space should be based on the improvement of international legal guarantees for the quality of journalistic work and commitment to democratic values.

   Methods. Case study of legal interaction between States and journalists is intended to expand the possibilities of self-regulation in the media sphere and promote narrative analysis to solve the problems of extremism and information wars in the post-Soviet space.

   Results. The development of statehood in the post-Soviet space should be accompanied by responsible behavior of international journalistic organizations and recognition of their competence in organizing intellectual competition for the audience’s attention. Abuse of journalists’ rights, monopolization of the regional media market, low quality of tactical media and insufficient competence of media discourse participants pose critical threats to the information security of states, reducing the quality of journalism throughout the post-Soviet space.

   Conclusions. Professional and creative unions of journalists are responsible for the reproduction of qualified professionals, the protection of intellectual and labor rights of their members, compliance with professional ethics and the promotion of traditional values in the media space. The solution of the tasks facing national journalistic organizations presupposes the organization of international cooperation in national interests.

   The task of international journalistic unions is to smooth out conflicts by organizing a professional polylogue.

   Disqualification of national journalistic unions from international journalistic organizations leads to the violation of the rights of state media journalists and provokes the escalation of conflict in the information space. The protection of the rights of creative authors and journalists working on assignment from the editorial boards of state and private media requires legal certainty in defining the framework of acceptable narratives, as well as maintaining an independent platform for professional interaction between all active participants in the political discourse who are interested in normalizing the military and political situation by creating an atmosphere of strategic trust in the post-Soviet space.

   The main international law governing legal relations in outer space remains the 1967 Treaty, the rest of the space legislation is of an internal national or bilateral nature. And despite the fact that the Outer Space Treaty prohibits claims to sovereignty or appropriation of celestial bodies, the lack of clarity regarding who can own space resources, that is, the remaining legal vacuum, was filled by some countries at their own discretion.

   Aim and tasks. To identify gaps in international space legislation. To analyze existing international treaties in the field of space law and national laws of countries.

   Methods. The historical-legal, formal-legal and comparative-legal methods of research are applied.

   Results. It is argued that international agreements are outdated legal acts of the Cold War era and do not reflect modern political and technological realities. It was revealed that there are no international legal acts regulating the activities of non-governmental private organizations in the development of space resources for commercial purposes. Active development of national laws, as well as an increase in the pace of commercialization of the space sector are noted. Domestic space laws, in order not to contradict the prohibition of the Outer Space Treaty, allow property claims only for resources that can be extracted from celestial bodies. As a result of such an approach, the priority of international law may be under threat. The increasing commercial focus of the laws of the USA, Luxembourg and Japan is critically assessed. The absence of clear national legislation in China, Russia, India regulating space operations related to the extraction of resources from celestial bodies was revealed. The issue of space pollution in orbit, compensation for environmental damage caused by satellites, fair distribution of radio frequency spectrums and the danger of private aerospace companies being involved in military conflicts is raised.

   Conclusions. It is concluded that modern space governance initiatives are more focused on bilateral relations than on international consensus. It is proposed to develop and introduce mandatory restrictions and prohibitions on commercial exploitation of space by international treaties.

   Aim and tasks. The study is aimed at studying the prospects of the Asian vector of Russia’s foreign policy in the context of the implementation of the “Turn to the East” policy.

   The purpose of the article is to study the current state of Russia’s cooperation with Asian countries within the framework of the implemented “Turn to the East” policy and to identify its future prospects.

   The authors chose the Asia-Pacific region as the main object, since today it seems to be an important strategic direction of the Russian Federation. To identify the main trends in Russia’s interaction with Asian countries, the dynamics of Russia’s economic cooperation with leading states that are the country’s main partners in difficult geopolitical conditions.

   Methods. When writing the article, the authors used general scientific methods. First of all, analysis and synthesis; system and comparative analysis; historiographic methods: the principle of historicism, the chronological method. To analyze Russia’s trade turnover with Asian countries, the statistical and comparative methods were used. To study the reasons for the turn of
Russia’s foreign policy to the East, the principle of historicism and the chronological method were used.

   Results and conclusions. Having analyzed various aspects of the “Eastern” policy, its influence on the successful development of relations between Russia and the Asia-Pacific countries (including its main strategic partner, China) was revealed. Moreover, the implemented policy has a positive effect on Russian-Asian investment cooperation in the development of the Far Eastern region, and also makes a significant contribution to the formation of a new global multipolar system. Russia and China are strengthening cooperation in trade, scientific and military technologies, culture, energy, healthcare, and others. Strengthening interaction with friendly Asian countries helps diversify Russia’s ties in the face of turbulence.

   Aim. To identify the characteristic features of the system of relations between Turkey and India at the present stage.

   Methods. The methodological basis of this research consists of general scientific methods (comparative analysis, structural and logical methods), as well as systemic and neorealistic approaches.

   Results. A brief overview of the first contacts between Turkey and India after the crash of bipolar system is given. The role and importance of the economic factor in the bilateral relations between Ankara and New Delhi are determined. The features of trade and economic cooperation are analyzed. Aspects of the political differences between the two capitals are highlighted. The key points of cultural and humanitarian contacts are marked. The general characteristics of Turkish-Indian relations and the degree of their influence on the regional and global architecture of international relations are presented.

   Conclusions. Despite Turkey’s adoption of the “Asia anew” political program, which involves the intensification of relations with the countries of the Asia-Pacific region, India has not entered the orbit of Turkish priority partners. The Pakistani factor remains significant in relations between Ankara and New Delhi, which generates counter-unfriendly steps by the Indian side towards Turkey and, as a result, an increase in mutual claims. At the same time, considerations of economic benefit and the aspirations of the business circles of both countries to increase the potential of mutual cooperation
dictate the need to overcome existing difficulties in order to build dynamic trade and economic ties. The historical basis of contacts, multiplied by the developing cultural and humanitarian dialogue, also favor the development of bilateral relations in a positive way. The rapid changes on the world stage, taking place mainly on the Eurasian continent, are pushing emerging states such as Turkey and India to develop a multivariate scenario for their foreign policy and strengthen relations with a wide variety of players, guided by the principle of pragmatism.

   This study is devoted to studying the key priorities of the SCO member states in the field of information security, as well as identifying the role of geopolitical contradictions and their impact on cooperation.

   Aim and Tasks. Based on the theoretical material and practical analysis of the rating and official documents, to identify the specifics of cooperation between the SCO member states in matters of information security. To analyze the indicators of innovative development of the SCO member states in the Global Innovation Index (GII), identify leaders in this field; to study the level of information security of the participating countries; to identify contradictions and to consider the general priorities of the policy of the states of cooperation in the field of information security.

   Methods. The work is based on the analysis of official documents, the comparative method of quantitative indicators, the case study method and synthesis.

   Results. The study showed that, depending on the level of innovation development, the SCO states see threats in the information space differently. Thus, for countries with technological leadership, cybersecurity, the establishment of common standards and the development of international cooperation are of paramount importance. Less technologically advanced states focus on preventing and eliminating threats of a domestic political nature. The factor of geopolitical contradictions has an impact on the cooperation of individual states within the organization in the development of the ICT sector (for example of Pakistan and China). However, within the framework of the SCO, states strive for constructive dialogue and the development of common approaches to regulating the field of information security.

   Conclusions. The results of the study demonstrate the importance of the level of technological development of the SCO member states in building their own information policy and proposed initiatives within the SCO. China and Russia are the undisputed technological leaders in the organization. As their ally, the Republic of Belarus strives to improve its information security system. At the same time, Pakistan, being a geopolitical opponent of India, has established cooperation with China on the development of the ICT sector within the framework of the “One Belt — One Road” project. Analyzing the trend of innovative development, we can note the significant successes of India, Iran and Kazakhstan. In the case of Kazakhstan, it is important to point out that the republic is a technological leader in the Central Asian region, and therefore the issues of building information security are a strategic focus. Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan are focusing on solving internal problems in the information space, but they are actively putting forward their initiatives in this area within the SCO.

   Aim and tasks. In this paper, the focus is on the Republic of Guinea, located in West Africa. A significant role in determining the country’s foreign policy belongs to political parties, which perform an important function of shaping the political course of the state.

   Therefore, the purpose of the work is to identify the peculiarities of the foreign policy approaches of the leading political parties of the Republic of Guinea.

   To achieve this goal, tasks related to the factor of ethnicity in the implementation of foreign policy, the influence of ethnicity in the activities of political parties, and the peculiarities of the political process in the Republic of Guinea are being solved.

   Methods. The article uses a comparative analysis method to compare the leading political parties of the Republic of Guinea, as well as a discourse analysis to study their programs. A retrospective analysis of the political system made it possible to trace the evolution of the formation of political institutions, such as political parties, and the specifics of their formation.
The paper analyzes the programs of five political parties: the Association of the Guinean People, the Union of Democratic Forces of Guinea, the Union of Republican Forces, the Party of Hope for National Development and the Liberal Bloc.

   Results. The Republic of Guinea is in a transitional stage of its development. Solving domestic political problems related to overcoming the political crisis, politicizing ethnicity, and creating a solidary society will contribute to shaping foreign policy priorities. The leading political parties of the country, as the most important democratic institutions of society, play a decisive role in this process.

   Conclusions. The formation of political parties in the Republic of Guinea is decisively influenced by the ethnic and regional factors due to the existing conflict among the ethnic groups that make up the State. Based on intertribal and ethnic contradictions, programs of political parties are being adopted, focused on solving both domestic and foreign policy tasks. For the sustainable development of society, it is necessary to harmonize their interests, optimize bureaucratic processes and strengthen democratic political institutions. Increasingly, political parties are focusing their foreign policy programs on the countries of the Eurasian region.